The number of women who leave Western countries to join terrorist organizations is increasing, while the number of men has declined, a claim substantiated in the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism (UNOCT) 2019 report. As of April 2023, 17 percent of individuals leaving the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) member states to become foreign fighters were women. Women are increasingly involved in violent extremist organizations (VEOs) and efforts to prevent violent extremism (PVE).
In recent years, VEOs have enacted recruitment strategies that target vulnerable populations, specifically youth and women. The development of youth- and women-targeted propaganda allows these demographics to serve as a previously under-utilized pool for enlisting new members.
Women represented one-fifth of individuals arrested in the European Union in 2018 for terrorist-related activities; women served active roles in 60 percent of armed rebel groups between 1990 and 2008; women-endorsed armed groups are more likely to control greater territory and claim victory over government opposition forces; and women’s participation in armed groups increases their perceived legitimacy. However, terrorism is often misconstrued as a solely male phenomenon.
Gendered counterterrorism strategies are now of great importance. Since VEO recruitment has successfully exploited women, increasing women’s participation in counterterrorism strategies could boost effectiveness.
VEOs and Vulnerability
The role of women in violent extremism is complex, as terrorist organizations target this vulnerable demographic in contradictory ways, subjugating women while incentivizing their involvement. More recently, women are increasingly targets of recruitment attempts, often through internet-based radicalization efforts. Women are consequently misconceived in the realm of counterterrorism efforts, seen as either the victims of VEO activity or radicalized perpetrators. The emphasis on these dual extremes illustrates the unique challenges women face when entangled with violent extremist organizations, which exploit their vulnerabilities and societal stigmas.
VEOs often strategically commit acts of sexual violence against women to invoke a deep sense of shame and stigma. In many cultures, female victims of rape are ostracized, facing severe social repercussions that extend well beyond the physical assault. The socially constructed dishonor attached to rape is so intense that it isolates survivors from their communities and families and deters survivors from seeking the medical care they desperately need.
Neglecting women’s health can lead to untreated physical injuries, sexually transmitted infections, and unwanted pregnancies, all of which may result in long-term health consequences. The fear of humiliation and ostracization often prevents female victims from pursuing legal justice against their attackers. This lack of legal action not only denies women personal justice but also perpetuates a culture of impunity that allows perpetrators to continue their crimes without fear of punishment.
VEO recruitment strategies targeting women exploit these established patriarchal social structures to manufacture a veneer of trust within communities. Through radicalization campaigns, extremist groups promise women an escape from social oppression through monetary resources and subsequent independence, a sense of security and protection, and a “greater” role in schemes of terrorism.
Female recruiters play a pivotal role in leveraging their access to spaces and groups inaccessible to male perpetrators, such as women’s gatherings, educational settings, and domestic environments. Female recruiters utilize their positions to exploit personal interactions and support structures, appearing to promote confidence-building and to address the needs and grievances of women and children. This strategic infiltration not only facilitates the spread of extremist narratives; it also creates a sense of belonging and purpose among recruits, thereby reinforcing their commitment to the terrorist organization.
In Europe, much of the recruitment of women to VEOs such as ISIS is facilitated through social media. Online platforms offer an alluring narrative that romanticizes life within extremist groups, portraying it as empowering and meaningful. This propaganda creates a potent pull for young women, particularly those seeking purpose and excitement.
“False offers of empowerment” and ideological campaigns of female radicalization from ISIS have been successful in recruiting women and girls throughout Europe. Despite ISIS’ violence against and subjugation of women, some women viewed the mission of the Islamic State as rooted in female empowerment, illustrating the false notion that a lack of economic opportunities, social mobility, and freedom is the sole cause of female participation in terrorist activity.
While there are multiple recommended strategies to mitigate female recruitment—such as improving legal prosecution and implementing prison-based reintegration programs—integrating women into counter-recruitment strategies has already proven particularly effective.
The Growing Role of Women in Counterterrorism
To address the nuanced position of women as both victims and perpetrators, gendered counterterrorism strategies have increased in the past decade, and there is already evidence of success. Women bring valuable perspectives and experiences to conflict resolution, mediation, and negotiations with extremist groups. There is a direct correlation between an increase in female representation in civil society and public life and a decrease in corruption and institutionalized violence.
One such example is the G5 Sahel, a recently dissolved institutional framework for coordinating regional cooperation in development policies and security matters in West Africa. The program introduced women into various leadership positions, created a platform for women in the G5 to voice their concerns and suggestions for gender-related policy, and implemented a women’s integration plan into the military and security corps.
Though the initiative has since disbanded, policy recommendations urging the integration of women in counterterrorism strategies have multiplied. Proposals from the UN Counter-Terrorism Committee, training and discourse through the Women Preventing Extremist Violence (WPEV) project, and peacebuilding initiatives in the Women Without Walls Initiative (WOWWI) are some examples of the growing number of programs.
Female access to education has also served as one of the most vital tools for combating violent extremist recruitment. Through the promotion of anti-VEO activities via religious and secular educational institutions, education undermines recruitment by providing women and children with the skills and critical thinking necessary to avoid terrorist radicalization.
Empowering women counters the strategy used by VEOs: radicalizing women and young girls through promises of an escape and improvement of their social and economic marginalization. In addition to expanding women’s educational opportunities, gendered integration into counterterrorism initiatives is a necessity, as it further adapts to the gendered recruitment tactics of extremist movements.
Changing Strategies in Gendered Approaches
Although countries often promise through executive orders and multinational treaties to include women in counterterrorism strategies, they often fail to fully integrate this demographic, overlooking the pivotal role women have played in leading coalitions and negotiating peace treaties. In countries such as Syria and Colombia, women have been at the forefront of decision-making as negotiators, government delegates, opposition politicians, and judges in war tribunals.
The counterterrorism roles often designated to women revolve around motherhood: women, as maternal figures, can discern and identify early signs of radicalization in children and educate children about moral values. This approach to female involvement in counterterrorism is limiting, as it confines women to the private sphere and traditional gender norms. Researchers such as Moussa Bourekba suggest that this role should be expanded, with women involved in terrorism prevention, peacebuilding, and security enforcement efforts—for example, as teachers, policymakers, and religious leaders.
One example of developing strategies is peer-to-peer organizing, which unites women of all backgrounds around common characteristics related to terrorism. “Morchidat” are trained female preachers who disseminate religious education to women as a method of anti-VEO radicalization in Morocco; the international program “Mothers for Life” unites mothers who have family members who fell prey to violent extremist recruitment; and “PAIMAN Trust” brings women together to share stories that provide alternative sources of empowerment, decreasing women’s vulnerability to VEO radicalization.
Another critical mistake with developing counterterrorism strategies is to view youth as gender-neutral—a homogenous demographic that serves as a source of VEO recruitment. Failing to recognize that male and female youth have incredibly disparate adolescent experiences, especially in states targeted by terrorist cells, prevents complete and detailed analysis necessary for successful counterterrorist policies.
Case Study: Moroccan Counterterrorism Strategies
Expanding civil rights and liberties and improving women’s social and economic conditions play a significant role in combating terrorism; these efforts address underlying grievances that can fuel radicalization and undermine the incentivizing promises underpinning VEO recruitment campaigns. Morocco has successfully employed this strategy by establishing more egalitarian policies regarding marriage, inheritance, divorce, and land ownership.
The Moroccan government also implemented a gendered program to address the instrumentalization of Islam to propagate violent extremism. During the Cold War, the government supported the establishment of religious institutions and missionaries, similar to those in Saudi Arabia, to counteract the influence of radical ideologies. By addressing how religious doctrine is manipulated to justify terrorism, Morocco prevented the dissemination of VEO ideology from affecting impressionable populations.
Through this initiative, women have served as Imams, religious leaders and heads of communities, thereby assuming a pivotal position in community-building and religious guidance. In 2005, 50 Mourchidates (female Imams) were certified by the Moroccan government; by 2014, there were over 500. Granting women religious status positioned them to empower and educate other women, combat conversion to extremism, and identify indications of radicalization.
For example, one thwarted plan involved a suicide bombing coordinated by two young twin sisters. Described as having “a disadvantaged background and school absenteeism” that facilitated their vulnerability to manipulation, they were coerced by local VEO cells that wished to destabilize the Moroccan royal family. The plan was prevented in part because the sisters confessed to a Mourchidate, illustrating the critical role women can play as trusted community leaders.
Gendered approaches have proven effective in increasing the reach of counterterrorism strategies. According to one Mourchidate, empowering and including women in such policies differs from involving men: “If you train a man, you train one person. If you train a woman, you train an entire community.”
In addition to these domestic efforts, Moroccan infrastructural development has also looked abroad; in 2015, King Mohammed VI inaugurated a US$20 million education center in Rabat for the religious training of foreign Imams, aimed at preparing the next generation of religious leaders to combat violent extremism globally.
Moroccan counterterrorism efforts have thus proven somewhat effective in addressing a root cause of terrorist expansion—the attractiveness of recruitment appeals—as opposed to post hoc approaches such as intense surveillance and armed intervention. By circumventing violence through gender-conscious infrastructural changes in religious institutions, these counterterrorism efforts were legitimized by the population.
Addressing the Nuance of Gender
Including women in efforts to combat violent extremism has proven effective. Governments should recognize the complex roles women play in both terrorism and counterterrorism; this understanding is crucial for the effective execution of foreign policy initiatives, female-oriented peacebuilding efforts, and counterterrorism strategies. Empowering women to play a leading role in religious training and community-building not only promotes the dissemination of peaceful ideology and democracy, but also facilitates increased advocacy for women’s rights and the future participation of women in positions of power.
To adapt to the evolving tactics of VEOs, counterterrorism strategies must leverage the power and influence of women in both domestic, private and public, diplomatic spheres. By learning from successful case studies, countries can better incorporate gendered approaches in counterterrorism and peacebuilding efforts.
