In 2015, a group of Guatemalan minors was brought to the United States and forced to live in squalid conditions and work long hours on an Ohio egg farm under threats of violence. Thousands of human trafficking cases such as this one are reported in the United States every year. Human trafficking in the United States encompasses forced labor, sex trafficking, and domestic servitude. Globally, approximately 27.6 million people are victims of human trafficking, with significant numbers within the United States. According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index (GSI), an estimated 1,091,000 people are living in modern slavery in the United States. Despite its prevalence, human trafficking receives relatively little media coverage. This lack of coverage hinders public awareness and policy initiatives combating this alarming human rights violation.
Research suggests that US cultural values centered on wealth, power, and sex exacerbate the human trafficking crisis. This cultural framework creates an environment ripe for exploitation. The intricate relationship between US cultural values and human trafficking demonstrates the roles that capitalism and media, political, and corporate complicity play in the modern world.
The Allure of Wealth: Capitalism and Exploitation
In the United States, capitalist culture facilitates human trafficking. The US economic system, centered on private ownership and profit maximization, often reduces human bodies and services to commodities, leading to exploitation through fraud and coercion. The cultural ideas associated with individual success and economic prosperity often overshadow the dark underbelly of systemic exploitation; this focus can facilitate the endorsement of exploitative practices by fueling the demand for cheap labor and consumer goods. The media's portrayal of women exacerbates the issue. Unethical journalistic practices in reporting on sexual violence desensitize the US public to exploitation. The sexualization and objectification of women in the media also normalizes exploitation, making it difficult for the public to recognize and respond to the signs of human trafficking. This cultural conditioning perpetuates harmful stereotypes and reduces the perceived severity of trafficking, further complicating efforts to combat it.
Traffickers operate as business owners, seeking to maximize profits by leveraging vulnerabilities such as poverty, lack of education, and migration status. Between January 1, 2020 and August 31, 2022, the US National Human Trafficking Hotline identified 26,872 trafficking situations and 42,887 likely trafficking victims. Economic disadvantages exacerbate vulnerability to human trafficking, and 11.5 percent of the US population lives below the poverty line as of 2022. Furthermore, forced labor globally generates approximately US$236 billion in illegal profits annually, underscoring the power of the financial incentives driving exploitation. However, this number is not entirely conclusive, as illegal markets are difficult to estimate.
US Trafficking Legislation in Comparative Perspective: EU Countries
On June 13, 2024, the European Union passed a directive amending and strengthening earlier legislation on human trafficking, explicitly defining exploitation of surrogacy, illegal adoption, and forced marriage as forms of human trafficking. However, EU countries still address the issue in different ways, suggesting that economic problems are not the only cause of trafficking. EU countries fall into two categories regarding their legislation on sex work, which impacts the prosecution of sex trafficking: legalization and prohibition. Under legalization, EU countries can be further divided into regulated (ex. Germany, Netherlands, Greece) and unregulated (ex. Belgium, Denmark, Italy, Spain); under prohibition, approaches that punish the sex worker (Croatia, Romania), the client (the “Nordic model”: France, Ireland, Sweden), or the sex worker and the client (Lithuania).
Germany, for instance, has stringent labor laws and robust social safety nets that help mitigate trafficking. The country also provides comprehensive victim support services and has strong legal frameworks to prosecute traffickers, ensuring the issue remains in the public eye and that victims know where to seek help. In 2017, Germany implemented the Act to Improve Action Against Human Trafficking, which not only increased penalties for traffickers but also expanded the definition of trafficking to include forced labor and exploitation. Additionally, organizations such as Solidarity Women in Distress (SOLWODI) offer shelters, counseling, and legal assistance to trafficking victims, further showcasing Germany's commitment to combating this issue.
The Netherlands decriminalizes certain aspects of sex work to regulate and protect workers, which reduces the clandestine nature of the industry and makes it harder for traffickers to operate. The Dutch model also includes extensive victim support services and rehabilitation programs. Sweden’s “Nordic model” criminalizes the purchase of sex while decriminalizing those who sell it, aiming to reduce demand and lower trafficking rates. Sweden also invests heavily in social services and support for trafficking survivors, aiding their reintegration into society.
Sex Sells: The Entertainment Industry and Pornography
Through pornography, the entertainment industry plays a significant role in normalizing sexual exploitation and fueling human trafficking. Pornography often depicts unrealistic and aggressive sexual behaviors, shaping viewers' perceptions and attitudes towards sex and relationships. A significant portion of mainstream porn includes sexual violence or aggression, desensitizing individuals to exploitation and perpetuating the demand for such content.
Currently, the pornography industry in the United States generates approximately US$12-14 billion in annual revenue. Traffickers often use force or fraud to coerce individuals to perform in pornographic content. This content is then distributed widely on online platforms, perpetuating the profit incentive for traffickers. In the United States, pornography is one of the most common forms of trafficking reported to the National Human Trafficking Hotline. The case against Pornhub in 2020—in which 40 victims sued for the distribution and monetization of non-consensual sexual content—highlights the severity of the issue. Victims are often transported across borders and exploited in various regions, including North America, Europe, and Asia. The global nature of the internet allows trafficked content to reach a vast audience, complicating efforts to combat this form of exploitation.
Platforms like Facebook and Instagram provide traffickers with easy access to potential victims, particularly young and vulnerable individuals. Websites like Backpage (now shut down) were notorious for facilitating sex trafficking by allowing traffickers to advertise victims under the guise of adult services. The dark web offers anonymity, making it a favored platform for traffickers to recruit victims and sell trafficked individuals. Cryptocurrencies are often used for these illegal transactions, adding another layer of secrecy that makes it harder for law enforcement to track trafficking networks.
EU countries also struggle to contain the distribution of sex trafficking pornography. In Sweden, a 2021 study found that women in pornography production face significant exploitation and trafficking. The study involved in-depth interviews with nine women, revealing coercion, manipulation, and financial exploitation. Additionally, the Swedish Gender Equality Agency's report from 2021 noted an increase in the number of reported criminal purchases of sexual services from children, with 224 crimes reported in 2019 compared to 131 the previous year, indicating a troubling rise in child trafficking. Sweden's legal framework against purchasing sex has somewhat mitigated demand, but trafficking for pornography remains a challenge due to global distribution channels. In Germany, the legalization of sex work and robust regulations aim to protect sex workers and reduce trafficking. However, illegal operations persist, especially the production and distribution of trafficked pornographic content.
Power Dynamics: Political and Corporate Complicity in Sex Trafficking and Forced Labor
Political and corporate power structures contribute to the perpetuation of human trafficking. This issue is perpetuated by gaps in legislation, inconsistent enforcement, and lobbying efforts that delay or weaken the implementation of stronger anti-trafficking laws. Additionally, some corporate practices, driven by profit motives, overlook human rights concerns.
In the United States, gaps in legislation and enforcement persist. Despite efforts such as the US Department of Homeland Security’s Center for Countering Human Trafficking (CCHT)—which coordinates national efforts, including law enforcement training, public awareness campaigns, and victim support programs—and laws such as the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), enforcement is inconsistent. The TVPA, originally passed in 2000, combats human trafficking by providing a framework for prevention, protection, and prosecution. It includes provisions for severe penalties for traffickers, victim restitution, and civil remedies for trafficking victims. Additionally, the 2021 National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking (NAP) mandates comprehensive reporting and coordination among federal agencies to enhance anti-trafficking efforts.
However, according to the US Government Accountability Office, staffing gaps, unclear roles, and weaknesses in monitoring impede these efforts. Furthermore, powerful lobbying groups—including those from industries such as agriculture and construction—resist the enactment of stricter laws that could affect their economic interests. These industries often rely on cheap, vulnerable labor, and stronger regulations or enforcement efforts targeting trafficking could increase labor costs. Lobbying efforts are politically and economically motivated, seeking to protect industry profits and reduce regulatory burdens.
While sexual exploitation often dominates the human trafficking discourse, forced labor is another significant aspect of human trafficking. According to the UN International Labour Organization, of the 27.6 million victims of human trafficking globally, 77 percent are subjected to forced labor and 23 percent to sex trafficking. Many corporations are complicit in human trafficking through their supply chains. Tech companies such as Samsung, Microsoft, and Sony often fail to ensure that their products are not made with forced labor, especially when sourcing from countries with high trafficking rates. For instance, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China has documented cases in which international businesses operating in China are complicit in human rights abuses, including forced labor. These companies—by prioritizing access to the Chinese market and minimizing production costs—inadvertently support and perpetuate trafficking networks.
The Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act (UFLPA), implemented in 2022, has strengthened US efforts to combat forced labor by stating that goods produced in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region are made with forced labor, unless proven otherwise. The enforcement of UFLPA has already led to the review of over 9,000 shipments valued at more than US$3.4 billion, and it has driven companies to enhance their due diligence processes. As a result, many businesses have shifted their supply chains away from high-risk areas, demonstrating the impact of stringent regulations in addressing these human rights abuses.
The gender dimension of sex trafficking and forced labor is also important. As of January 2023, women and girls constituted 60 percent of all human trafficking victims; however, boys are the fastest-growing demographic of human trafficking victims. Support for male victims of human trafficking is hampered by the perception of men as perpetrators; the idea, according to the US Department of Justice, “that male victims are only exploited for labor or that their involvement in commercial sex is always voluntary”; poor support resources; and victims’ greater hesitancy to self-identify (compared to female victims).
The Role of News Media: Underreporting and Misrepresentation
Despite increased media coverage since the passage of the TVPA, human trafficking still receives oversimplified and inaccurate coverage in US media. Investigative journalism also requires significant resources and time, and many local news organizations face budget constraints, which may lead to reduced in-depth, investigative coverage of human trafficking. Insufficient media coverage in the United States—especially regarding the trafficking of Indigenous people—leads to a lack of public awareness and understanding of the severity and prevalence of human trafficking. This ignorance hinders grassroots movements and advocacy efforts combating trafficking. Policymakers are less likely to prioritize issues that do not receive substantial media attention. Consequently, legislative efforts to strengthen anti-trafficking laws and support services for victims may lack the necessary political momentum and situational awareness to succeed.
In contrast, countries such as the United Kingdom have extensive coverage of human trafficking. British media, particularly outlets like the BBC, regularly feature stories on human trafficking, emphasizing its local and global implications. The United Kingdom’s Modern Slavery Act of 2015 significantly shaped media coverage and raised public awareness of human trafficking. This legislation mandates transparency in supply chains and requires businesses to report on measures taken to prevent trafficking and exploitation. Additionally, coordinated efforts among law enforcement agencies, NGOs, and international partners have resulted in high-profile operations and increased media attention. This sustained coverage helps keep the issue in the public consciousness and pressures policymakers to act.
Advocacy and Awareness: Bridging Gaps in Knowledge and Support
Advocacy groups such as the Polaris Project and International Justice Mission (IJM) play crucial roles in combating human trafficking through direct assistance and raising public awareness. Polaris, which operates the US National Human Trafficking Hotline, has identified 197,000 victims since 2007 and established the Polaris Resilience Fund in 2023 to provide monetary support to survivors. IJM has rescued over 76,000 victims globally since 1997 and aided in the conviction of more than 4,600 traffickers. These efforts have significantly influenced policy reforms and public engagement.
Media engagement is crucial to expose the severity of human trafficking, raise public awareness, and pressure governments to allocate funds and enact stronger policies. When citizens are informed, they can unify globally against human trafficking, and legislators can address jurisdictional gaps that hinder the prosecution of traffickers who move victims across borders. Countries can also share best practices and collaborate on cross-border initiatives to combat trafficking. For instance, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has facilitated regional cooperation among Bangladesh, India, and Nepal to enhance cross-border victim support and information sharing.
Educational programs are also essential. For example, in the United Kingdom, the charity Just Enough UK visits schools to educate young people about human trafficking; such lessons can teach children to recognize signs and report suspicious activities, thereby building a proactive public. The UK government also teamed up with NGOs to educate Ukrainian refugees about human trafficking risks. These collaborative efforts demonstrate a unified approach to combating human trafficking, promoting legislative action to better protect and support victims.
Human trafficking in the United States is a complex issue exacerbated by cultural values centered on wealth, power, and sex. Inadequate media coverage further complicates efforts to combat this crisis, undermining public awareness and policy initiatives. To effectively address human trafficking, comprehensive legal reforms, robust victim support systems, and increased media coverage are crucial. By learning from international approaches and enhancing public awareness, the United States can make significant strides in combating human trafficking and protecting vulnerable populations.
